Adventures in Aviation: February 2012

Human Performance & Limitations Theory Notes Feb 2012

1. The Human Condition

More than 80% of all aircraft accidents are now caused by pilot error. Low time pilots are responsible more for handling errors, while accidents from poor decision making or judgement appear to be independent of the aeronautical experience.

Fitness and Flying

It is important to maintain a healthy body and healthy fitness level.

Diet & Body Weight

BMI over 25 is considered over weight and a BMI over 30 is considered obese.

The National Heart Foundation recommends these 7 basic rules:

Reduce fat intake

Reduce salt intake-salt can lead to high blood pressure and heart problems

Reduce sugar intake

Eat more fruit, cereals, vegetable and wholemeal bread

Eat a wide variety of meals

Eat proper meals

Exercise more regularly-20 mins of brisk walk 3 or 4 times a week is sufficient

The Pinch Test

The skin fold just above your hip should be no more than 12mm thick when pinched, if it is more than 20mm thick, more exercise is needed.

Gout, which leads to arthritic pain, is caused by an imbalance in uric acid in the body and is aggravated by poor diet and high alcohol intake.

The Heart

Pumps around 76000 litres of blood a day. Strong evidence suggest that generic makeup is the most common cause of heart problems, although good diet and regular exercise greatly reduce the risk of heart problems. High blood pressure is directly linked to heart disease.

Food & Drink Poisoning

The most common cause of pilot incapacitation during a flight is gastro-intestinal upsets due to bacterial contamination of food and drink.

AVOID – Prepared hot foods that are kept for some time before being served, e.g. pies. Avoid seafood, especially oysters and shellfish. Avoid creamy pastries, cakes or custards and creamy sauces.

CHOOSE- Fresh fruit or vegetables, salads, bread, or hot freshly cooked meals. Canned food is us usually safe providing it is freshly opened.

Operating in hot environments

The human body is comfortable when operating in a temp range of about 21°C to 27°C with a relative humidity of 50%. Outside of this the body becomes stressed by being either too hot or cold.

The first type of heat stress occurs in an environment above 32°C, the most noticeable effect will be tiredness and it will become increasingly difficult to concentrate.

Heat Exhaustion occurs when the circulatory system cannot compensate for blood vessels that have dilated to increase the flow of heat out of your body via the skin. Drinking water is a good antidote.

The second type of heat stress occurs from over exposure to the sun or not enough liquids. The effects will be subtle but your concentration will be lowered leading to a decline in decision making ability.

The third type of heat stress occurs from temps below 10°C. It’s possible the body can lose more heat than it can produce. This can cause shivering, drowsiness and poor concentration.

Hypothermia occurs when the body can no longer maintain its core temp and its symptoms can include impairment of thinking, apathy and eventually unconsciousness and death. The most likely cause is long immersion in cold water or unprotected exposure to very cold environments.

Being sensible is the best way to deal with potential problems. If flying in extreme temps, have an appropriate survival kit.

Dehydration

Air at altitude is dryer than at sea level; a great deal of water can be lost due to perspiration. Pilot can be unaware because the air is dry so there is no sweaty feeling.

Eventually leads to a malfunction in almost every bodily process including emotional disturbances and irrational decision making.

Solution: Drink more water!

Early symptoms include: dry nasal passages and prickly feeling in the eyes.

Most humans feel comfortable in a humidity of between 40-60%.

Flying & Blood Donations

Blood donations can cause tiredness and low blood pressure, CASA recommends being grounded for at least 24 hours.

Smoking

Risk of cancer of the lungs, pancreas, tongue, oesophapogus and larynx, other risks are:

Heart Attack – increased by 100%

Heart attack – if high blood pressure increased by 200%

Heart Attack – if woman on the pill increased by 1000%

Stroke – increased by 100%

Gangrene – increased by 500%

Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke reduces the blood oxygen carrying capacity; heavy smokers are effectively several thousand feet higher than their actual level and suffer the effects of Hypoxia at a lower level than a non-smoker. Effects include reduced visual sensitivity and reduced mental alertness.

Barotrauma

During a climb, the outside air pressure drops and the ear drum begins to bulge outwards. The Eustachian tube provides a passage to allow the air behind the ear drum to leak out into the nasal cavity to equalise pressure on either side of the ear drum.

During a descent, the air pressure rises and the ear drum bulges inwards. Air flows back to the inside of the ear drum through the Eustachian tube. When the Eustachian tube is blocked with mucus by cold and flu, the air cannot move freely causing severe pain and possible rupture of the eardrum as the air cannot equalise.

Air flows out of the Eustachian tube easier than it flows back in. Avoid high rates of descent when passengers have a cold. The pain caused by these differences in pressure is called barotrauma.

Pressure vertigo – dizziness caused by pressure affecting the ears balance mechanism.

Valvsalve Manoeuvre may assist in relieving pressure. Block nose and blow!

Sinusitis & Hay Fever

The sinuses are holes in the bone to reduce the weight and allow resonance. They are lined with membranes and are vented to the nasal cavity. During cold and flu, them membranes swell and become blocked.

Hay fever is triggered by an allergic reaction to airborne particles. It causes irritation of the nose, sinus and eyes causing them to itch, swell and become runny. Medications used to relieve these symptoms disqualify a pilot from flying. Headaches and migraines also impair the ability to function in the cockpit.

Injury

CASR 67.265 requires all injuries or condition that may restrict you from flying be reported to CASA or a DAME as soon as possible. You should not fly until advised by a DAME.

Age

The effects of age are: deteriation in hearing (higher frequencies in men), presbiopia or long sightedness caused by a weakening of the muscles controlling the eyes lens.

Most 10yo children can focus on an object at 80mm whilst a 40yo can be as far as 200mm.

After the age of 40 there is a rapid increase in the distance for focusing, however doesn’t pose a problem as it can be corrected with glasses and hearing remains at a minimum.

Pregnancy

Not be affected by flying. Due to the bending involved in getting in and out of an aircraft, flying should stop after 6 months.

Air Sickness

Confusing or ambiguous signals arriving at the brain during flight in turbulence cause the physical symptoms of air sickness. Symptoms include: Pale face, sweating, nausea and vomiting. Anxiety and stress the likelihood of airsickness.

Fresh air on the face, looking at the horizon or becoming occupied with other things can help.

Over the counter medications are available, however pilots who are prone to air sickness should consult a DAME.

Emotional Considerations

Anxiety can heighten the body’s responses to stimuli and assist in concentration by allowing the individual to disregard the irrelevant and focus on the immediate task.

Depression is the body’s natural way of taking time out during periods of disappointment or grief and is a normal state provided there is a reason for it.

Fear is a result of evolution and alerts us of threatening situations.

Anxiety, depression and fear become destructive when there is no rational reason for them. A pilot who continuously feels these is not fit to fly.

More facts-

Obesity can be a contributing factor to hypertension, gout, diabetes and heart disease

On average the body loses 1 litre of water, on a hot dry day it can lose up to 5 litres

Ingestion of too much salt can lead to hypertension(high blood pressure)

Green vegetables releases gases which can cause discomfort when they expand in the lower ambient pressure at higher altitude

Too little iron can lead to blood disorders like anaemia

2. Pilot Medical, Drugs & Scuba Diving

Reasons for medical examination

For pilots to demonstrate they are free of any condition which could threaten safety. Conditions which would disqualify an applicant from holding a medical certificate include:

A physical disability which could impair the pilots ability during flight

A condition which could lead to sudden incapacitation such as a stroke, heart attack or fit

Designated Aviation Medical Examiners – DAME

CASA appointed doctors.

Medical certificates

Commercial valid for 1 year

Private & Student valid for 4 years if under 40 and 2 years if over 40

Alcohol & the Brain

No evidence to show moderate drinking does nay physical damage to the brain. Heavy and long term consumption does along with the diet and lifestyle that goes along with it can damage the liver, heart and brain.

Short term effects of alcohol

It is carried almost immediately to the brain once in the blood stream where it acts as a depressant. It accompanies a false impression that performance is above average, when in fact thinking is slowed and judgement impaired. As the concentration increases, slurred speech, unsteadiness on the feet and loss of inhibitions are noticed by others.

Ridding the system of alcohol

The presence of food in the stomach has an effect on the rate the alcohol is absorbed, nothing changes the rate at which the alcohol is removed from the body, except time.

A very small amount is disposed through breathe, perspiration and the kidney’s (urine), totalling about 10%. The remainder is metabolised by the liver at a rate of one standard drink per hour for a man and less for a woman.

Some people have a degree of a destabilising of the balance mechanism of the inner ear long after alcohol level falls below the legal limit and even a reduction in the ability to process information long after they appear to be sober. 14 hours after ingestion, when the blood alcohol is zero, alcohol is still present in the brain for up to 24 hours.

Long term effects of alcohol

Apart from the hangover of nausea, headache, gastritis and thirst, frequent heavy drinking can lead to cancer of the mouth, oesophagus and stomach, damage to the heart and liver. Usually heavy drinking is accompanied by heavy smoking and poor diet and sleep patterns.

Alcohol & Flying

CAR 256 requires a total abstinence from any alcohol 8 hours before departure. To be free of the effects, no more than 1 or 2 standard drinks should be consumed within 24 hours of flying. The maximum over a week is 21 to 28 standard drinks for a man and 14 to 21 for a woman.

Other Drugs

Illicit Drugs

As they are illegal there can be no control over purity and can greatly affect performance and mood.

Over the Counter & Prescription Drugs

A number of over the counter drugs have side effects which can be potentially dangerous in flight. Always consult a DAME and notify your doctor that you fly.

Analgesics	Short term pain relievers, headaches etc. Aspirin – stomach upset. Excess can cause internal bleeding and kidney problems Codeine – addictive and constipation Paracetamol – excess can damage kidneys & liver
Antihistamines	Drowsiness and degraded performance
Ephedrine	Incompatible with some medications, excessive use can damage nasal tissues
Stimulants(Amphetamines & Caffeine)	Amphetamines are illegal. (Benzedrine) Short temperedness, disorientation, restlessness, fits of anxiety, over confidence and headaches. Caffeine can cause sleeplessness, irregular heart rhythms and can be habit forming.
Antibiotics	Some people have an allergic reaction and the effects may include diahorrea or the condition itself may be cause to not fly. Allow 24 hours after beginning the course to check for reactions.
Tranquillisers	Treat anxiety & tension, effectiveness diminishes with continual use and are habit forming. Side effects include dizziness, drowsiness and an increased susceptibility to the effects of alcohol.
Sedatives	Used to treat sleep disorders, side effects include; dizziness, blurred vision, headaches, skin irritations and can be long acting and cause a hangover effect and is habit forming.
Blood Pressure Medication	High or low blood pressure can be reason for disqualification from flying however there are some medications that can be used for pilots.

Prevention is better than the cure- maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle and keep medications to a minimum.

Never drink alcohol on a course of medication. If ever unsure of a medical condition, consult a DAME.

Hyperventilation- A state of over breathing usually brought about by fear, excitement or anxiety and occurs as a panicky feeling of suffocation that leads to deep, rapid breathing.

The main problem is they are exhaling too much carbon dioxide and removes it from the blood causing a reduction in acidity. It causes light-headedness, dizziness, sweating, rapid heartbeat and tingling or numbness in the hands and feet. Fainting sometimes occurs and can be mistaken for a heart attack. To treat it, slow the breathing down. It can be brought on by anxiety or fear or by overcompensating for a perceived lack of oxygen by breathing more frequently and deeply.

Atmospheric Pressure Changes-

By 18000ft the pressure has dropped to half of its sea level value.

During a climb the outside pressure drops and the air in the cavities in the middle ear and sinuses expands and escapes through the nasal cavity.

During a climb in a high performance unpressurised aircraft, or in the event of a rapid decompression, the rapid expansion of these gases can cause considerable pain. The large bowel can be vented via the anus, but air in the small bowel cannot be vented.

Some foods such as fermented drinks, vegetables such as cabbage and beans are the worst. Air inside fillings can cause toothache.

SCUBA diving and flying-

30ft below the surface is subject to a pressure twice that at sea level. The equipment delivers air at a similar pressure. Nitrogen accumulates in the blood and tissues whilst high pressure is present.

If the pressure is released too suddenly, as in ascending to quickly, the nitrogen is released and can cause bubbles. Joints and muscles feel stiff and rheumatic like pains. If the bubbles enter the spinal chord or brain, tingling sensations or paralysis may occur. If the diver holds their breath, the expanding air could rupture a lung and force air into the blood stream. If it reaches the brain, it can cause unconsciousness or death. The condition is called, decompression sickness or the bends and is treated with recompression either by returning to deep water or in a hyperbaric chamber.

If flying after a dive, the reduction in pressure can bring on decompression sickness as low as 8000ft. The recommended period between diving and flying is as follows:

No decompression Stop – 4 hours

Decompression stop but less than 4 hours – 12 hours

Decompression stop and more than 4 hours – 48 hours

3. The Human Ear

The ear has 2 functions, balance and hearing.

The Outer Ear

A flap of cartilage framing a 25 mm long canal which terminates at the ear drum. It contains hairs and about 4000 wax producing cells which protect it from insects and dust as well as hot and cold extremes.

The middle ear

Eardrum forms an airtight seal protecting the middle ear from contamination. The eardrum vibrates from sounds arriving through the ear canal, and 3 tiny bones, the hammer, anvil and the stirrup amplify and conduct those vibrations to the cochlea. The stirrup connects to the cochlea at the oval window. This is where the mechanical energy f the vibration transforms into electrical energy of nerve impulses which are transported to the brain via the cochlea nerve.

The middle ear is vented by the Eustachian tube which connects to the upper part of the throat.

The inner ear-

The cochlea processes the vibrations and turns them into electrical windows which proceed to the brain where they are interpreted as sounds. Above the cochlea are the semi circular canals which detect acceleration in pitch, roll and yaw. They are the seat of the sense of balance.

The cochlea-

A tiny bone that resembles a snail shell, it is filled with fluid and hair like cells. The hair cells respond to the pressure waves which generate the nerve impulses that the brain interprets as sound.

The cells are various widths and are tuned to resonate different frequencies depending on its width. Constant exposure to loud noise can damage those cells which is irreversible. Even one loud noise can damage them.

The sense of balance – Vestibular System

The semi circular canals are 3 loops located at the top of the cochlea. They are filled with fluid and hair cells called cupula. As the head moves, fluid washes over these cells and sends nerve impulses to the brain to maintain orientation. The cupula respond to initial change in angular acceleration only. During a prolonged turn with constant angular acceleration, after the initial flow of fluid the fluid returns to its normal position.

The otolith organ senses linear accelerations and is located at the top of the cochlea and is made up of 2 components, the utricle which lies horizontally and the saccule which lies vertically. It responds to straight line changes both fore and aft and up and down.

The sense of balance does not rely entirely on the middle ear. The eyes play a dominant role in maintaining a sense of balance and the brain takes advantage from postural cues, pressure on the feet or seat and back. If the sensory information from the eyes, postural cues and vestibular system are conflicting the brain becomes confused and the pilot can become airsick or disorientated.

NOISE

Two characteristics of sound, frequency or pitch AND intensity or loudness.

FREQUENCY

Sound is caused by vibrations which send pressure waves through the air, as it arrives at the eardrum, the eardrum bends inwards and back with each wave. The frequency is the number of vibrations per second and is called Hz (Hertz). The range of intelligible speech is 300 – 5000Hz.

Intensity

Is determined by the degree at which the ear drum bends and is measured in Decibels (Db). 1Db is the lowest change in sound detectable and every increase in 10Db indicates an increase 10 times in intensity (loud).

Over 80Db, sounds produces some discomfort and long term exposure can produce permanent damage. Above 140Db produces ear pain.

Sustained exposure to noise levels greater than 85Db can cause permanent hearing loss. Early warning signs include:
-Easier to hear on the telephone than a normal face to face conversation.

-Missing a lot of conversation in a noisy environment

-Feeling the need to turn up the TV when other can hear ok

-Finding it difficult to hear when the speakers head is turned away

Hearing protection

Should be worn if you need to shout to be heard at a distance of half a meter. Ear Plugs can reduce noise by 25Db and quality headsets can reduce noise by 40Db.

Ear muffs cannot reduce the noise arriving at the inner ear by more than 40Db because the noise conducted to the inner ear through the bones and face is about 40Db lower than the outside source.

Exposure to high noise levels can also cause stress, reduces concentration, aggravates fatigue and leads to a reduction in efficiency.

4. The Human Eye – its functions and limitations

ANATOMY

Cornea is a transparent film through which light first enters the eye. The cornea is held in place by a transparent fluid called aqueous humour. The iris is the coloured the coloured part of the eye and changes shape with the intensity of the light and causes the pupil (black part at the centre of the iris) to dilate or get smaller filtering more or less light through to the lens.

The ciliary muscles alter the shape of the lens to focus objects at various distances onto the retina. The retina is covered in millions of light sensitive cells called rods and cones. Cones are centrally located and specialise in colour and fine detail and require bright light. Rods are arranged around the cones and are not colour sensitive, they operate in low light and are responsible for night vision.

The most sensitive area on the retina is the fovea which is used for fine detail. Nearby is the junction of the optic nerve which forms a blind spot. Light falling on the blind spot is not registered by the brain.

Dark Adaptation-

The rods need 30-40min to fill with rhodospin (visual purple) and a flash of bright light can destroy it.

Bright light: The iris expands to cover most of the lens. The pupil is reduced in size, cutting down the amount of light let into the eye.

Average light: The iris begins to contract, causing the pupil to enlarge (dilate). A greater amount of light is let in.

Dark Adapted: The iris has contracted further to produce a wide dilation of the pupil. Allows much more light to enter the eye.

A prolonged exposure to bright light can cause a 30-50% reduction in night vision for up to 1 week!

The frequency of red light has no affect on the process of dark adaptation of the rods. White lights should not be used in the cockpit at night.

Limitations of the eye-

The eyes ability to detect detail depends on the angle subtended at the eye by the element being viewed.

Obstacles such as power lines are almost impossible to see from an aircraft because the angle subtended by the width of the power lines is often beyond the resolving power of the eye.

The bottom line of a doctors chart requires the ability to resolve an angle 1 60^th of a degree, 1 min. The equivalent of seeing a dot 1mm in diameter at a distance of 3.6m or 1cm a 36m.

When landing towards the setting sun, the best action is to lower the sun visor. Sunglasses are almost useless.

Flicker vertigo- Bright lights is caused to flicker as it passes through a propeller blade or heli rotor. It can cause distraction, dizziness and disorientation. It can be caused by strobes in cloud. Photic stimuli at certain frequencies can produce seizures in some people who are susceptible to flicker induced epilepsy.

*Consider using a runway that is not into the late afternoon or early morning sun, even if it is a cross wind.

*Keep windscreens free of scratches.

*Other pilots may have trouble seeing you when flying down sun and keep a good lookout and turn on taxi and landing lights.

Empty field myopia-

The lens takes up its rest position, producing a focal distance between 1-2m. It is countered by focusing on wingtips, ground features or cloud tops occasionally. If an aircraft is seen, it finds it difficult to decide if it is a small aircraft close or a large aircraft farther away because there is no other object to compare it with.

It may be possible to grossly over estimate the distance to another aeroplane.

Using your eyes for effective scanning-

Dust, fatigue, feelings, illness, age, illusions, altitude, sun direction, glare, heat, lighting and aircraft design all affect vision.

Even the best eyes take 1-2sec to adjust too far and near again or in significant weather or haze, the eyes make enter empty field myopia.

If one eye sees something the other eye cannot, it gives a blurred or even rejected image to the brain. Eyes can get light from over 200° of arc but can only focus on an area of about 10° or 15°. The eye can only focus while it’s not moving in its socket. A scan must include a series of stops.

Colour vision in aviation-

Colour vision relies on the cones on the retina. They contain pigment which is specialised by colour sensitivity. The combined stimulation of these cells produces all the colours you can recognise between 120 and 150 for most people. When brightness and saturation is taken into account, the number of hues becomes thousands. Colour deficient vision is almost 100% male.

Colour defective vision s almost always inherited and is permanent and unable to correct. It is detected via the Ishihara Test.

Refractive Errors-

Reduction in visual acuity due to abnormalities in the lens are called refractive errors and can be corrected with glasses.

Hyperopia-

Also called long-sightedness, the condition can be corrected with the use of convex lenses.

Myopia-

Also called short-sightedness, near objects can been clearly but distant object fall short of the retina, causing blurring. It can be corrected sing a concave lens.

Astigmatism-

Irregularities in the cornea and/or lens causes distortion of different parts of the object to different degrees causing blurring of some parts. It is corrected by using a cylindrical lens.

Presbyopia-

Naturally related to ageing. It causes difficulty in focusing on close object and usually happens after the age of 40. The type of lens used to correct it will bring near objects in focus but make distant objects out of focus.

Seeing other aircraft-

If another aircraft is on a collision course with you in flight, it will appear to remain stationary in the windscreen.

Constant relative bearing applies to aircraft on converging courses and they would have to be on the same height. Which adds to the difficulty as the horizon usually offers poor contrast.

Scanning Techniques-

Rods are more sensitive to light than cones. The cones require at least half moon light to function. Effectively this creates 2 blind spots on a dark night. Night vision can be enhanced by looking 4° to 12° to one side of the object.

When we sweep our eyes across, the eyeball moves in small jerky movements called saccades. No visual information is provided whilst the eye is moving, t is best to make movement’s o 10°-15° with a pause after each movement. This s called the saccade/rest cycle. Each movement of the takes about one third of a second before it pauses and moves on.

The most important area of the sky to scan is the area about 60° to the left and right and 20° above and below the horizon.

SIMPLE PRECAUSTIONS-

Clear the turn in high wing aircraft

Clear the nose in a descent or climb

Night vision can be greatly affected by lack of sufficient oxygen in the bloodstream (hypoxia). Without oxygen in unpressurized aircraft, it can be affected as low as 4000ft.

Heavy rain on a windscreen makes outside objects appear less distinct. The brain is likely to interpret objects being further away than they actually are.

5. Disorientation in flight

To sense the orientation of the body in space (equilibrium), the brain must process information from various sources:

The eyes, the inner ear (vestibular system) and the skeletal muscles and joints (postural or proprioceptive cues)

The highest priority is placed on info provided by the eyes.

Disorientation-

A state on confusion and conflict which occurs when the brain receives conflicting or ambiguous messages from various senses and the eyes have no familiar external reference like a natural horizon to rely on.

The pilot’s response may then be an inappropriate control input which could lead to a loss of control.

During a rapid level acceleration, inertia causes the fluid in the inner ear to flow backwards. The pilot also feels his body sink into their seat back. The same would be felt if the pilot was tilted backwards in a climb. The brain cannot distinguish between the two.

Deliberate Deception-

Simulators combine the visual cues and motion along with the instrument indications to provide a very close experience.

Dealing with disorientation-

The eye must be trained so that the artificial horizon is the dominant input otherwise disorientation is almost certain to result.

Other Illusions-

Bright is up: Our brains have been conditioned to accept that bright is up.

The Leans: A slow roll and a rapid correction and the brain will think it is in a bank in the opposite direction.

Prolonged shallow turn: The fluid in the inner ear returns to equilibrium and the sensation of turning stops. When the aircraft is levelled the pilot believes he is banked the other way.

The Coriolis Illusion: The semi circular canals in the inner ear are set in 3 planes of motion- pitch, roll and yaw.

Certain combinations of head movement, especially during a turn, can create an unpleasant tumbling sensation which can be distracting or incapacitating.

The graveyard spin or the graveyard spiral: Inappropriate control inputs as a result of disorientation can cause a total loss of control, usually a spiral dive.’

False Horizons: If the actual horizon is unavailable, the eye will seize upon another continuous straight surface and assume it to be the horizon. If that surface is not level, confusion results.

Autokinetic Illusion: In the absence of any other reference, the eyeball makes continuous jerky movements; these movements cause the focus of the light source to move onto the retina. The brain perceives these movements to be caused by the movement of the light source. T is most likely to occur when viewing distant lights on a dark night. The effect can be lessened by not fixing the gaze on any one light source for long periods.

Somatogravic Illusion:

Acceleration can be mistaken for a steep climb. ALWAYS RELY ON THE INSTRUMENTS

Depth Perception-

Judging distance and height: Humans have 2 forward facing eyes, called binocular vision and each eyeball must be turned inwards slightly to focus on the close objects of distances less than 1m.

Perspective-

Both the relative distance to objects in the field of view and the height of the eye above the surface and determined by perspective.

Objects towards the horizon reach a vanishing point.

The height at which a horizon cuts a familiar object can be used to estimate the observer’s eye level from the surface.

The eye does not use apparent size as the only means f estimating distance.

Perspective is more important than relative size in judging which objects are further away.

The rules of perspective do not necessarily apply to objects in flight.

Effect of atmospheric transparency on judgement of distance-

The accuracy of distance judgement is the condition of the atmosphere. A certain average transparency condition for the atmosphere is expected by the brain. Further away, the objects become less distinct as the pollutants increase in number. When unusually clear, the brain can fooled in thinking objects are closer than they actually are.

The opposite makes the brain think objects are further away than they actually are.

Another effect that can be caused by heavy rain is the refraction f light as it passes though a build up of water on the windscreen acting like a prism, refracting the light and making the runway threshold appear steeper than it actually is.

Parralax: When you are moving, your brain can tell if an object is closer or further away than the one you are focused on by considering whether it appears to move opposite to, or in the same direction as you. It is most useful when the object being viewed is at right angles to your direction of travel.

Aerial Perspective-

In the absence of any other visual cues or instrumentation, perspective alone can be misleading.

Terrain sloping up from the threshold: The pilot feels they are too low, the tendency is to remain to high during the approach and arrive at the runway too high or too fast.

Terrain sloping down from the threshold: The pilot feels they are too high, the tendency is to fly a flatter, lower approach requiring extra power on final to make good the aiming point.

Runway sloping up: The pilot feels they are too high, the tendency is to fly a flatter, lower approach requiring extra power on final to make good the aiming point.

Runway sloping down: The pilot feels they are too low, the tendency is to remain to high during the approach and arrive at the runway too high or too fast.

Judging distance at night: On final approach on a clear night, runway lights appear brighter and closer than they really are, giving the pilot the impression that he approach is too high. On a night where visibility is reduced by haze or smoke, runway lights my appear further away than they actually are, giving the impression that the approach is too low.

Black Hole Effect: Of particular importance is the effect on a dark night when the only lights visible are the runway edge lighting.

It is called the black hole effect and the tendency is to get the false impression you are too high causing an undershoot on the approach. Similar affects can also occur in the daylight when the approach is over featureless terrain such as snow or calm water. The absence of lights other than runway lights can give rise to the somatogravic illusion once the runway lights disappear once the nose is raised during the takeoff run.

Increased Susceptability to Disorientation-

Pilots experiencing disorientation or illusions depends to some extent on the physical and mental state.

Physical Factors include: Head colds, flu or sinus infection, physical exhaustion or discomfort.

Mental factors include: Anxiety, stress or mental fatigue, fear or panic, worry.

SUMMARY OF VISUAL ILLUSIONS ON APPROACH:

A pilot may think they are too HIGH on approach, therefore undershoot, when:

The runways lopes up from the threshold

The terrain slopes down from the threshold

The runway is narrower than usual

Runway is longer than usual

Approach is over water or featureless terrain

Approach is in total darkness except for runway lights

Air is unusually clear

Runway and approach lights are brighter than usual

Heavy rain on the windscreen

The pilot may think they are too LOW on approach and overshoot when:

Runway slopes down from the threshold

Terrain slopes up from the threshold

Runway is wider than usual

Runway is shorter than usual

Visibility is poor

Runway approach lights are dimmer than usual

6. The effect of G Loads & Toxic Hazards

G Loads

Newtons Law of Motion- All objects will continue in a straight line motion unless compelled by some external force to do otherwise. G Load causes every part of a pilot’s body to experience an apparent increase in weight. They are measure by comparing them to the normal force of gravity. In normal flight the pilot is at 1G, in a 60deg banked level turn, the pilot experiences 2G. During a typical loop, the G Load will reach about 3.5-4 in the early pull up and exit.

The physiological effects of G load-

The rate at which blood flows to the brain reduces. The heart increases it’s rate.

A high G load of short duration, the brain uses residual oxygen called transient loads. (2-3sec)

A very high G load more gradual over 5 sec causes a lack of oxygen and grey out, black out and eventual loss of consciousness (G-LOC).

Grey Out-

Partial loss of vision is the first effect of sustained G loads. The low blood oxygen levels cause the peripheral vision to fade. Objects in the centre of view can be seen but are surrounded by a grey haze. The pilot is still fully conscious and capable and is usually first noticed at about 3.5G.

Black out-

Above 5G the pilot is conscious but cannot see.

G LOC-

Very quickly follows a black out if the G is sustained. The pilot cannot fly (obviously) and consciousness is quickly returned with the release of G.

Factors which decrease the tolerance to G loads-

Hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar levels) or diabetes can impair the hearts ability to compensate for G loads causing grey and black out at lower G’s. Heat stress can cause a substantial decrease in G tolerance.

Hypoxia causes the blood oxygen level to be low even before the onset of any G load. Any respiratory infection, including the common cold can have a significant effect on G tolerance.

Techniques for improving G tolerance-

More reclined seating, bringing the heart and the brain closer together.

Tensing the stomach muscles can reduce the blood’s tendancy to pool in the lower abdomen and legs.

Wearing a G Belt or a G Suit.

Physical fitness will assist in performance under G load.

Negative G-

Occurs when the pilot is placed outside the pitching manoeuvre. There is an excess of blood in the arteries leading to the head and the heart slows down and can stop. Grey and black out will not occur and the pilot remains fully conscious, high negative G can force the bottom eyelid over the eyeball causing the field of view to go red, called red out.

The most likely effect of negative G is rupturing of the blood vessels of the face and eyes causing bloodshot eyes and red blotches on the face. Safe limit is -3G.

A sudden change from sustained negative to high positive G greatly increases the chance of grey or black out. The heart slows down under negative G, the must change from a slower to a faster rate. Once positive G is applied, the residual oxygen in the brain must be depleted before the heart can increase blood flow. The G threshold will be much lower than normal.

TOXIC HAZARDS-

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas, present in the exhaust of piston engines (between 3-9%) and turbine engine (about.003%).

When present in the lungs, it enters the bloodstream by combine with haemoglobin taking the place which is normally reserved for oxygen.

At low levels there are no symptoms. As saturation rises there is a marginal impairment of performance which is aggravated by exertion. As more saturation occurs, headaches, fatigue and mild discomfort breathing occur. At higher levels there is an impairment of vision, mental confusion, severe headache and sometime vomiting. Very high levels result in unconsciousness and death.

The most common source in a light aircraft is a leaking exhaust and it coming in through the hot air vents. If it s suspected, close the vents, open fresh air vents and lands as soon as possible and use oxygen.

7. Circulation, Respiration and Hypoxia

Continued human performance needs an uninterrupted supply of fresh oxygenated blood to the brain. The brain continually monitors the quality and quantity of the blood supply, sending commands to the heart to adjust its pumping rate and to the lungs to adjust the breathing rate to ensure an adequate supply of oxygen is being delivered.

Once the supply has been sent to the brain and rest of the body, the deoxygenated blood returns to the heart, passes through valves, arteries and veins then directs it to the lungs whee it gives up carbon dioxide and collects fresh oxygen.

In the lungs, the haemoglobin molecule picks up as many as 4 oxygen molecules and carries them via the blood to the body’s tissues. Then the blood is returned from the lungs to the heart where it repeats the cycle.

Heart – brain – body-heart-lungs-heart

The brain does not monitor oxygen levels in the blood; it reacts to carbon dioxide content.

If the brain detects excess carbon dioxide, it assumes the body is in a state of exertion and sends a command to increase breathing rate.

HYPOXIA-

20% of the pressure in the atmosphere at sea level is oxygen. 20% of the atmosphere at any other level is oxygen. Called the partial pressure of oxygen. At 36,090 feet the partial pressure of oxygen is 45.2hPa. The transfer of oxygen to the blood stream depends on the partial pressure within the lungs. At 10,000ft the blood is still 90% saturated with oxygen. Above 10000ft, the partial pressure drops and the transfer is impaired. At 33,700ft without cabin pressurisation, it become necessary to breathe 100% oxygen to maintain adequate blood saturation level. Pressurising the cabin to maintain 8000ft pressure or by using oxygen to increase the percentage of oxygen breathed are ways of maintaining the level.

If the oxygen levels fall, the carbon dioxide levels remain the same so the brain doesn’t notice any change. The state of oxygen deprivation s called hypoxia. The early symptoms resemble a mild intoxication of alcohol and impaired night vision. Later symptoms include slowed thinking and impaired judgement accompanied by a feeling of euphoria and the impression the performance is above average. Eventually unconsciousness will occur. Cyanosis usually occurs in the more advanced stages which involves a blue colouration of the lips and fingernails. A few breaths of oxygen will provide a full recovery within seconds.

Effective Performance Time (EPT)-

The time of useful consciousness:

Altitude(ft)	Moderate Activity(pilot)	Sitting Quietly(passenger)
20000	10min	20min
25000	3min	5min
30000	1min	3min

Increased susceptibility to hypoxia-

Some medical conditions can have an increased susceptibility. It can affect:

Night Vision- The rods of the retina are sensitive to oxygen, degradation stars at 4000ft.

Smoking- An average smoker is likely to have up to 10% of the bodies haemoglobin occupied by carbon monoxide. Even at 5% saturation they are effectively at 8000ft before leaving the ground. By the time the smoker with 5% saturation is at 5000ft, they are essentially at 10000ft.

Haemoglobin forms a compound called carboxyhaemoglobin with the carbon monoxide.

Alcohol- the effects on the brain are similar to those of hypoxia, their separate affects are addictive.

Cold and fatigue- both will enhance affects of hypoxia.

Chronic respiratory disease – an increase in altitude will increase the affects of hypoxia.

Heart Disease – some types of heart disease, particularly congenital, result in poor oxygenation of the blood. This will be aggravated by an increase in altitude.

Anaemia – in this condition there is a decrease in the amount of haemoglobin available to carry oxygen to the tissues. Any decrease in oxygen availability soon leads to hypoxia.

Effects of reduced pressure-

Reducing the pressure f any gas causes it to expand. Gas trapped in the body will expand as the altitude increases. If the gas cannot escape, it can cause colic in the abdomen or toothache. Descent to a lower altitude will relieve the symptoms.

Ears and sinus normally allow expanding gases to escape but when the gas contracts as the pressure increases on descent, they may not allow the air to equalise in pressure. Relief may be obtained by ascending to a higher level or stopping the descent.

Nitrogen dissolves into body fluids. Bubbles can occur when it is release however this does not occur below 18000 feet, is uncommon below 25,000feet and takes an appreciable amount of time at altitude to manifest. It produces the bends.

Rapid decompression-

Effects include: Breath forcible exhaled from the lungs, a sudden drop in cabin temperature, pain in the stomach, ears and sinuses, turbulent wind as the air escapes the cabin.

Supplemental Oxygen-

From sea level to 10,000ft none is required.

From 10,000 to 25,000ft a continuous flow mask is adequate.

From 25,000-40,000ft a demand oxygen mask is used. From 33700 -40,000ft 100% oxygen.

Above 40,000ft a pressure demand mask is required to supply 100% oxygen under increased pressure.

Compared to sitting quietly, oxygen uptake during a life-threatening emergency can increase by a factor of 20!

8. Human Decision Making, Personality and Attitudes

The decision making model-

Human behaviour is the result of two levels of action. Subconscious or reflex actions that occur below the threshold of awareness, and deliberate actions which are initiated after the brain has processed the relevant information received from various senses.

Situational Awareness begins with the arrival of information of information from visual, audio, vestibular and proprioceptive sources. Proprioceptive is information received from forces and pressures acting on the muscles and skeletal joints.

The sensory memory-

This information is first directed to the brains sensory memory where it is sorted. Some is passed to the short term memory for further attention while some is simply discarded. It can only hold one piece of information for a very short time. Visual information is held in the sensory memory for between half to one second. If it is not passed to the short term memory it is lost.

Auditory information are held between 4-8 seconds before they are lost.

The short term memory-

Holds about 7 items of information for about 30sec. Performance can be enhanced by chunking individual items into blocks. The short term memory appears to be acoustic and stores information as sounds rather than mental pictures. It is almost error free.

The long term memory-

Persists for 10min to a lifetime and its capacity is almost defies belief. It is very susceptible to error. It relies on associating new information with existing information. “Proceed from the known to the unknown.”

Parts of the long term memory are:

Episodic Memory- Past events and their outcomes

Semantic Memory- Assigns meaning to symbols, codes or words such as logos, and flags.

Motor skills memory- Complex individual tasks which have been linked through training and practice become skills. Very little conscious effort is required and the brain is free to deal with other things. These skills are sometimes called motor programs. The most likely error is the initiation of the incorrect skill rather than an error in execution.

For an item to pass from short term memory to long term memory it must be consolidated. Consolidation requires rehearsal/study.

The sensory memory, the short term memory and the long term memory are involved in the decision making process.

Limitations of the central decision maker and information processing-

While it is possible to do 2 things at once, if more effort is required on one item, the other is put on the back burner. As stress on the pilot increases, the attention span of the pilot narrows to deal with the problem. The rate of the information processing actually increases under stress, however the range of attention decreases.

Our attention can be selective or divided. Selective attention applies when all of our attention is focused on those input data which are specific to a particular task at hand to the exclusion of any irrelevant data.

When under stress, we tend to resort to selective attention mode and deal with each item before moving on to the next. This is sometimes called sequential attention.

Divided attention applies when the situation requires us to cope in an emergency situation.

Personality & Decision Making-

The ancient Greeks identified 4 basic types of personality.

Introverted (turned inwards – quiet & shy)

Extroverted (turned outwards – impacting strongly on others)

Stable (consistent & unaffected by circumstances)

Anxious or Unstable (unpredictable and easily affected by circumstances)

Another way to define personality types in terms of the desire to achieve goals and the desire to fit in with a team and keep other members of the team happy. Some personalities have great determination to achieve a goal but show little regard for the feelings of others involved. (G+P-)

Others are so concerned with keeping everybody happy that they are prepared to compromise their goals. (P+G-)

Ideally pilots will be (P+G+).

Hazardous Attitudes which affect decision making and human behaviour-

Anti Authority- A refusal to listen to the advice or suggestions of others. Contempt for all regulation even when that regulation is reasonable and necessary.

Deference-Whatever goes wrong is never their fault, but is always the fault of some other person or circumstance.

Impulsiveness- The tendency to commit to a certain course of action without giving thought to the possible consequences.

Invulnerability- The “It can’t happen to me syndrome.”

Macho- “There’s nothing I won’t do and there is nothing I won’t try.”

Resignation- This is an unwillingness to take control of a situation and do something different when the unexpected happens.

Additional personality-related factors that influence performance and decision making are pride, peer pressure and employer pressure.

Pride- A pilot who has recently qualified and is naturally keen to demonstrate their skills. It must not be allowed to interfere with the need to learn from experience and wisdom of others.

Peer Pressure- The desire to do what others can do. It should be tempered with a realistic appreciation of our own limitations and experience level.

Employer Pressure- This can be a 2 edged sword. Apart from a desire to please and impress a new employer, there is the fear that underachieving could cost the pilot their job. It is usually imagined to be much greater than it actually is.

Behaviour-

Human behaviour is largely the result of processing information which arrives through the various senses and there are clearly defined steps involved in information processing.

Sensation- Light entering the eye stimulates the optic nerve ad carries information to the brain.

Perception – The brain perceives that this is the image of another aircraft which is remaining stationary in the windscreen.

Decision – Through the long term memory I realise that this indicates a risk of collision, so I change my cruising level and watch the other aircraft.

Response- I take appropriate actions to initiate the level change and advise the appropriate stations of my intentions.

Mental Capacity-

The brain can consciously only think upon one item at a time. It can perform more than one learned motor skill at a time. The number of tasks that can be dealt with in this way is large depending on the complexity of each. If one task begins to demand more processing time, it does so at the expense of others. Mental capacity is finite and if too much is demanded by any item, it will begin load shedding some of the other items from the cycle of attention.

Attitude-

Defined as a predisposition to respond in a certain way to a particular person or situation. An attitude can be considered to incorporate 3 separate elements.

Belief- The cognitive aspect. A belief may or may not have justification in reason.

Feeling- The affective aspect. This feeling may be based on a belief which has no rational justification.

Action – The behavioural aspect. This feeling, based on this belief, predisposes me to act or respond.

Attitudes can be manifest as actions in response to feelings based on beliefs.

Many aircraft accidents have revealed that even though the pilot possessed the necessary skill and knowledge to safely cope with a situation, his actions were based on his attitude to a particular person or situation.

Motivation-

Is the desire to participate or achieve. Without motivation, other human attributes such as intelligence are virtually useless. Motivation is the key to success, not only in the short term for particular tasks or immediate goals, but also for the long term in achieving the ambitions of the lifetime. Intelligence or even raw talent, do not alone ensure success, for without the genuine desire to succeed there is little hope f achievement.

In 1943 a psychologist named Abraham Maslow proposed that the performance of a human being ultimately depends on the satisfaction of a hierarchy of needs. Until each need is satisfied, from the bottom up, it is difficult to fully concentrate on the next highest need.

Maslow didn’t say that it was impossible to advance to the next level without satisfying the one below. He simply said we will suffer from a constant distraction of wanting to attend to that need before we can move on.

In 1959 Hertzberg was investigating job satisfaction and motivation. His Two Factor Theory proposes that the factors that motivate a person to perform in their job are different to the factors that cause job satisfaction. He found that the motivating factors were the ones higher up in Maslow’s chart such as achievement, advancement, recognition, responsibility and the nature of the job itself.

Job dissatisfaction had factors caused by what he called hygiene factors. Such as staff relations, company personnel policy, salary, security and working conditions. It is possible for a person to remain highly motivated in their job and be dissatisfied with the job.

The Performance VS Arousal Curve-

Pilot performance will be degraded when overloading the pilot with too many simultaneous tasks. It is worsend if the pilot panics or becomes anxious about the outcome. Performance varies with various degrees of arousal.

In the absence of arousal, performance is diminished due to the lack of intensity of the brains attention cycle. As arousal increases, the pilot focuses intently on the task, performance increases to reach a peak at a moderate level of arousal.

If arousal continues to intensify due to an increased workload or stress, performance begins to degrade.

AHORT SUMMARY:

3 types of memory:

Sensory memory – 1 sec for visual and 4-8sec for audible

Short term memory – capacity 7 items and 30sec

Long term memory – unlimited capacity, prone to error and organises items by association to aid recall.

Brain processes items in 4 stages:

Sensation- takes information from eyes, ears, vestibular and proprioceptive

Perception – makes sense of the inputs from these various sources

Decision – perception leads to situational awareness, after comparison with items in the long term memory, a decision is made based on those perceptions

Response – the response is t act or not to act on the decision which was the result of sensation

9. Human Error, Human Behaviour, Sleep, Stress & Fatigue

Consolidation of items into the long term memory can be enhanced if the item can be readily associated with other items already existing there.

The quality of recall is far better for those items which are associated with positive emotions. Material learned in a pleasant happy circumstances, finds itself into the long term memory much more readily than that associated with unpleasant emotions. Proceed from the known to the unknown – simple to the complex.

The mind set -

A mind set is where the brain believes what it wants to believe rather than what is actually there.

Judgment training is developing an awareness of personality factors and the need to examine all of the available sensory inputs before making an unhurried decision. Good decision making requires a disciplined approach, especially when you are under pressure!

The most important consideration is to avoid rushing in with a judgement which is not based on all the facts.

The following steps should be followed in problem solving:

Consider the facts- What’s going on? Do not attempt to act until you are certain that you understand the situation.

Define the problem- What’s causing it? In the light of the available facts be sure that you have correctly identified the problem.

Consider solutions- What am I going to do about it? Having identified the problem be careful to choose the most appropriate solution. The first solution that comes to mind is not necessarily the best.

Take each of the possible solutions and try them – Act.

Consider the result – Did it work? If the action did not produce the required result, be prepared to repeat the process.

Confirmation bias-

A common threat to good decision making. The tendency to leap to a conclusion and then disregard any evidence that may indicate that the initial conclusion was incorrect.

The false hypothesis-

This is one of the most common contributors to human error otherwise known as the mistaken assumption.

The world’s worst aviation disaster was at Tenerife in 1977, two 747’s collided after one of the captains made an assumption.

There are certain situations in which the false hypothesis is likely to occur:

High expectancy- When the situation we are faced with is not what we have been expecting it is highly likely that essential details will be overlooked.

Diverted attention- When the pilot is preoccupied with one problem, a false assumption is made about the status of other systems.

When it serves as a defence involves accepting the assumption which promises the happiest outcome and ignoring the evading truth.

Following a period of high concentration- After coping with a dangerous or demanding situation there is a tendency to relax.

As a result of the effects of motor memory- An action involving the operation of a lever or switch which selects the wrong one or operate sit in the incorrect sense.

Environmental Capture- When a particular action or motor skill is always associated with a particular environment or phase of flight; it is possible to assume that that action or motor skill has been carried out simply because we are now in the phase of flight that is usually associated with it.

RISKY SHIFT-

Studies have shown the groups of people (2 or more) are likely to take more risks than an individual.

Pilots o multi crew aircraft should be aware of the phenomenon of risky shift and be prepared to make their apprehension known if they have identified a risk thy would not normally be prepared to take.

Group behaviour does not always tend to the risky extreme. It may swing to the safer extreme. Group polarisation behaviour is where a few strong individual make a group decision.

Disorientation at night-

Stress & Arousal-

The term arousal refers to the stage of activity of the body at any time. When demands increase to the point where we begin to feel unsure of our ability to cope (and therefore the outcome), arousal becomes anxiety. This is where stress begins and the brain begins to make physical changes.

It signals the hypothalamus, which mediates the body’s subconscious responses. The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone into the blood stream.

The adrenal gland releases adrenaline and a number of additional hormones which prepare the body for the fight or flight response.

The heart beats faster, blood pressure rises and blood flow to the skin and digestive system is redirected to the muscles, causing the skin to look pale and cold. Respiration rate increases and air passages dilate to the maximize the flow of oxygen the lungs. Blood glucose levels rise to ensure maximum energy production is available.

Stress is related to a particular set of circumstances. Acute stress is short term, if the stress is job or lifestyle related, it is known as chronic stress or long term.

Acute stress is perfectly normal and enhances the dynamics of coping with a particular situation, chronic stress is clearly negative and potentially destructive factor in the lifestyle of any individual.

There are indicators of stress as follows:

Mental Factors:

Frequently suffering from mental blocks

Forgetfulness including once familiar names and places

Inability to concentrate on one particular task

Reluctance to make decisions

Physical Indicators:

High pulse rate

Dryness of mouth

Profuse sweating

Hot flushes

Sleeplessness and bad dreams’

Asthma

Nerve rashes

Ulcers

Body pains

Severe headaches

Heart disease

Emotional Factors:

Apathy and depression and a feeling of worthlessness

Constant feeling of weariness

Constant feeling of anxiety, frustration, nervousness or guilt

Changes of mood and shortness of temper

Behavioural Factors:

A tendency to heavy and regular consumption of drugs and alcohol

Overeating and heavy smoking

Loss of interest at work and taking time off without need

Nervous trembling in voice

Nervous laughter, fidgeting r general restlessness

Not listening during conversations with more than one person

Events or situations that cause stress are referred to as stressors.

The Holmes/Rahe survey indicates that 80% people who score 300 and 50% of people who score between 150-300 are likely to get sick in the next 24 months.

Continuing high levels of stress can become destructive especially when the stressors are not identified.

COPING WITH STRESS-

People under high stress undergo 3 stages where their reactions and behaviours follow quite different patterns.

Alarm: All of the physiological and psychological symptoms of the fight or flight response are identifiable.

Resistance: Behaviour settles down to a plateau of reasonable performance and a resistance to giving in to the situation

Collapse: Reserves are exhausted and can no longer endure he stress. Subject experiences constant exhaustion, anxiety and severe depression.

Coping strategies-

Action coping: Escapeism involves taking action such as removing the source of the stress or removing one’s self from the stressful situation.

Cognitive coping: Mind over matter involves rationalisation along with intellectual or emotional detachment from the situation.

Symptom directed coping: Includes seeking professional help including prescription drugs or simply the use of recreational drugs. Exercise and meditation fall into this category.

Stress levels can be greatly reduced simply by talking about the stressors to someone. The worst thing you can do is internalise your feelings and continue to deny the stress is getting to you. Identify the stressors and put them in perspective.

Three areas of your life that should be investigated and modified when it addressing the problems of stress are: behaviour, attitude and fitness.

Relaxation-

Another important requirement for the management of stress. Periods of relaxation should be planned into the day to allow retreat to a quiet and comfortable.

Time Management-

Proper preparation avoids wasted time later and creates opportunity for rest.

Physical Stress-

Include:

Noise- Can be a serious distraction causing stress and fatigue

Vibration – constant vibration adds to stress

Temperature – Diverts concentration away from the tasks of flying

High G loads –

Hunger & thirst – performance is degraded and stress levels rise due to the distraction

Passengers should eat and drink normally before flights.

FATIGUE-

Can be considered acute or chronic. Acute occurs when a pilot has spent long hours enduring the demands of a hectic day including difficult passengers or poor weather. The affects are noticed first as a diminished ability to think clearly, while generally the more monotonous tasks and/or complex tasks before motor programs and sensory perceptions. The only thing can alleviate it is a good night’s sleep.

Chronic fatigue is job or lifestyle related and is a manifestation of chronic stress. To deal with it, changes in lifestyle and daily routine will usually be required. Typical symptoms will be loss of appetite, insomnia, tenseness and depression. Common sense is probably the best medicine for fatigue. Plan adequate sleep and relaxation in your normal routine, stick to a healthy diet and exercise regularly.

BODY RYTHMS-

Most of the activity in the universe I ordered into cycles. We also display circadian (daily) variations in our physiology. These circadian variations have been measured in:

Blood pressure

Body temperature

Heart rate

Sensory acuity

Adrenal gland input

Brain function

When humans are placed into and isolated environment their body reverts to a 25 hour cycle.

Most variations in human performance follow roughly the same pattern.

One of its direct affects is a general lack of well being after long distance flights with large changes in longitude. Suffers display a degradation in performance and motivation as well as changes in mod and behaviour.

THE SEEP/WAKE CYCLE-

Follows a 24hour rhythm. One third is sleep and two thirds is awake. The timing of sleep is critical in determining the duration of restful sleep.

Stages of sleep-

The brains electrical activity at normal alert state is known as Beta activity. When a person is just about to sleep with eye closed Alpha activity occurs. As the sleep cycle begins another phase is entered with small, rapid irregular waves are produced along with rolling eye movements. Called stage 1 sleep. Another 3 modes of sleep are identifiable each with distinct characteristics of brain activity.

About half of the sleep cycle is stage 2 sleep. It takes about 90min for a person to pass through all 4 stages of sleep with REM occurring at stage 4. The REM stage is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because the brain activity is similar to being awake. REM is usually associated with vivid dreaming and all 4 stages repeat usually 4 times throughout a night.

Naps-

The best quality sleep occurs between 200 and 0800 LMT. Napping can be a useful way of gaining sleep credits and to have any benefit should be at least 10-15min

Sleep Disorders-

Four of the most common types of sleep disorder:

Narcolepsy: Unable to prevent themselves falling asleep

Apnoea: Sufferers stop breathing during sleep. The cessation may last for 10 seconds or up to a minute.

Somnabulism: Sleepwalking.

Insomnia: The inability to get to sleep. When the body is out of sleep credits and conditions are favourable. The condition is known as clinic insomnia. When related to obvious environmental factors such as jet lag, it is known as situational insomnia.

HELPING THE BODY SLEEP-

Assisting in situational insomnia:

Avoid caffeine near bedtime

Ensure the room is quiet and comfortable

Avoid napping during the day

Plan a quiet period before bedtime

Take a warm drink or a book for light reading and consciously relax the muscles

Alcohol to assist sleep greatly reduces the REM sleep and increases the likelihood of waking early after poor quality sleep.

TRANSMERIDIAN DYSCHRONISM-

JET LAG

Throughout a 24hr period human performance for certain tasks follows a pattern. In the early afternoon there is a drop in performance known as post lunch or post prandial dip, even when you have not had lunch. The next dip in performance curve coincides with the early hours of the morning between midnight and sunrise. Sleep deprivation simply aggravates dips.

If transported quickly to a new time zone, the circadian rhythm remains set to the departure point but the performance crests and troughs now occur at different local times.

The body will slowly adjust to the new time zone at an average rate of 1-1.5 hours per day.

Travelling east causes the time scale to move forward and travelling west causes the time scale to move backward. Sleep in the new time zone may now correspond to the body’s peak performance.

Our internal body clocks are most used to slowing down than speeding up, jet lag is more of an issue for eastbound travellers than westbound travellers.

Other factors including, personality, influence the time required to synchronise our body clocks to a new time zone.

Resynchronisation would be easier if you are an evening type, extroverted, young, in good physical condition and travelling west. If you are a morning type, introverted, older, in poor physical condition and travelling east it will be more difficult.

10. Cockpit Design & Crew Relationships

Basic Ergonomics-

Derived from the Greek word for working naturally, ergonomics is the science of designing a work environment so as to maximise its user friendliness.

One of the most basic principles of ergonomics is that the machine should fit the characteristics of the people who operate it.

Of prime importance to air safety is the interface between the aircraft and the crew. It is here that a 2 way process must occur. The controls and the display.

Controls-

Belong to 2 subsets:

Primary- directly responsible for initiating or preventing motion about the 3 axis.

Secondary or Ancillary – control the aircrafts systems, engines, lift augmentation devices such as flaps and slats, spoilers and trims.

Good design requires the primary controls to have the following properties:

They should operate in a natural sense

They should be balanced – the controls used most often should require the least to manipulate. The degree of deflection required should be in harmony with the aircrafts response.

They should provide feedback – The pilot should feel a resistance on the controls which is proportionate to the rate of attitude change that is commanded. If balance and feed-back are correct, a given rate of change in attitude should require a larger control movement with les resistance on the controls when the IAS is reduced.

Safety Harnesses-

The primary objective a of a safety harness is to prevent serious injury to occupants involved in a survivable crash where the primary cabin structure remains reasonable intact.

In the case of an aerobatic harness there is an added requirement that the pilot should remain securely in their set and be capable of reaching and operating all of the controls while inverted or under a high negative G.

The most common harness is the lap strap and diagonal sash. The human body is capable of withstanding decelerations of up to 20G for periods of 200 milliseconds (.02 sec) without injury.

The lap strap should be adjusted so the hips are secured into the cup of the seat and the shoulder sash should run from a point over the midpoint of the opposite shoulder. It should not chafe the neck, nor should it pass too close to the tip of the shoulder allowing the upper body to slip out during deceleration.

A double shoulder strap provides good both linear and sideways deceleration.

Inertia Reels-

Inertia reels automatically take up any slack while allowing the freedom to lean forward normally. They are designed to lock when deceleration hits about 1G.

Harnesses and buckles should be tested periodically and inertia reels should be checked to ensure that they allow for slow forward movement but lock up when given a good hard tug.

Design Eye Position (DEP)-

A well designed cockpit should be suitable for 90% of the population. One of the most vital elements of cockpit design is the eye level of the pilot. Cockpits are designed on the assumption that the pilot’s eye will be at a particular position called the design eye position.

Displays-

A display may be defined as any device which presents information directly to any one of our senses.

Dynamic displays are those that are subject to changing indications such as the flight and engine instruments.

Static displays present fixed items of information in the form of placards, graphs or tables.

The brains sensory capacity is almost unlimited, the rate at which it can absorb information is limited by the short term memory.

Whilst waiting to be transferred some information can be lost or altered.

Head up Displays-

By projecting a collimated (focused to infinity) image of flight data onto an angled glass screen, the pilot can be provided with a display which is superimposed on the view outside the cockpit. The collimated view is focused at infinity so the pilot does not have to change their focus or divert their vision from the outside view.

Warnings-

Visual warnings require the pilot to be looking at the display at the right moment. Audio warning systems are the best and should be attention getting without being startling.

Bells or horns are abstract warnings and don’t tell the pilot what the problem is.

Voice warning systems such as ground proximity warning systems (GPWS) alert the pilot to the problem by giving the appropriate command to remedy it.

Linear Strip Displays-

This type is ideal when it comes to monitoring the performance of multiple similar systems and can be arranged in a way that making comparisons between systems becomes easy and any trend away from normal will be clearly indicated.

The layout of engine instruments in multi engine aircraft has 2 main considerations. The pilot should be able to quickly and confidently identify disparate readings when he readings for one engine do not coincide with the other.

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) displays present information in the form of pictures or words on a TV screen.

The glass Cockpit-

The information which is relevant to the various phases of flight can be displayed on one or two simple screens while master warnings systems compete for the pilot’s attention only if they have something to say.

Mode Awareness-

The auto flight and engine management systems can be set up in many different modes. It is possible for the pilot to believe that the system is carrying out one task when in fact it has been programmed to carry out another.

COMMUNICATION & LEADERSHIP-

Barriers to effective communication- Factors that can inhibit effective communication can be external or internal. External factors are the most obvious, noise, discomfort, busy work environment, poor enunciation. Internal factors are mainly associated with perception of what is said.

One of the most common internal factors is the error of expectancy. This occurs when the receiver assumes that they have heard what they expect to hear rather than what has actually been said.

Language can be ambiguous no matter how hard we try.

Aids to effective communication-

Use of standard phrases

Think before you speak

Keep control over the clarity of speech

The authority gradient in a multi crew environment refers to the relationship between the captain and the other members of crew. If the gradient is too shallow, the captains command status can be compromised, if it is too steep the captain can be perceived as a dictator.

Body language-

The main non verbal methods of communication and establishing a relationship are eye contact, facial expression, touch, body orientation and posture, hand and head movements and personal space.

Communication serves 2 basic functions. Allow us to present our thoughts and feelings for others to consider, or it can allow us to access the thoughts and opinions of others for our own consideration.

Up to as much as 75% of what we hear in conversations can be ignored, misunderstood or quickly forgotten and reasons include:

Wandering attention or tuning out

Preparing your next contribution

Engineering the conversation

Intellectual arm wrestling

LEADERSHIP-

A leader in a given situation is a person whose ideas and actions influence the thought and behaviour of others and is an agent of change and influence in others. Through example and persuasion, combined with a personal understanding of the goals and desires of the group and feels responsible for trying to implement these goals. High skills in their job ensure respect of the group.

Leadership v Authority-

Authority is usually assigned, true leadership is acquired.

A good leader should:

Lead by example

Advise intent

Delegate

Motivate

Consult

Set priorities

If a captain is to be effective in creating an effective team, they must be aware that the likelihood of their counselling and advise being accepted depends to a large extent on the crews perception of their own integrity and competence.

The 2 communication rule-

Each communication requires a response from each crew member that the communication is directed at.

FOLLOWING-

To be an effective team member, you must be able to put aside personality differences and still contribute effectively to the task goals as well as not agree with a plan just to keep the peace and will fully support it unless it is dangerous or incorrect in which case they would speak up.

Threat & Error Management-

The TEM model has 3 basic components:

Threats- originate from outside the cockpit or aircraft and are not directly attributable to something the crew did or didn’t do

Errors- originate from pilot actions or inactions that have potential to inadversely affect the safety of the flight

Undesired aircraft states- Any flight or condition which was not intended by the operating crew and can result from either a threat or an error.

The final event is an outcome.

Threats

Any situation or event that has the potential to impact negatively on the safety of a flight

Any influence that promotes the opportunity for pilot error

Anything that causes a variation to a perfect flight

Threats can be classified as External or Internal.

External Threats originate from the environment in which the aircraft is operating and can lead to pilot error. This can include:

Distractions caused by passengers or crew

Weather problems

Heavy traffic situations and/or unfamiliar aerodromes

Pressure to meet time schedules

Unexpected requests or enquiries from ATC

Maintenance issues

Missed approach

In flight diversion

System failures

External threats can be sub divided into:

Anticipated, or expected, external threats would include such things as weather and heavy traffic or unfamiliar aerodromes.

Unexpected external threats include distractions from passengers, in flight diversions and missed approaches.

Latent external threats are not directly obvious to the pilot but are lurking in the background waiting for a particular set of circumstances. Includes poor cockpit design or instrument layout, company policies, pilot fatigue and optical illusions.

Internal threats are brought into the cockpit in the persons of the pilot and crew. They increase the likelihood of errors and include:

Pilot fatigue

Language and cultural issues

Pilot experience and personality

Team unfamiliarity in multi-crew aircraft

Health and fitness

Pilot recency and proficiency

Threats can be further classified as:

Environmental Threats exist because of the environment in which the aircraft is operating and include:

Weather such as thunderstorms, icing, winds and turbulence

Airspace communication problems such as may occur in a CTA or in a CTAF area

Ground environments at airports including signage, birds or obstructions

Terrain about and below the aircraft

Operational pressures such as late arrivals or unserviceability’s

Organisational Threats originate from deficiencies in the infrastructure and organisation in which the aircraft is operating including:

Documentation errors

Tour of duty problems

Management of threats refers to tools or procedures that allow pilots to anticipate and/or respond to threats. A managed threat is one which is recognised and responded to before it can adversely affect the safety of the flight.

A mismanaged threat is one that is linked to or induces an error which adversely affects the safety of the flight.

Tools and techniques to manage threats:

v Detailed study of weather enroute and at the destination

v Ensuring compliance with operational requirements pertaining to the flight

v Checking ersa for arrival at unfamiliar aerodromes for special procedures

v Thorough and careful pre flight inspection

v Self assessment of fitness, recentcy and experience required

v Familiarity with aircraft type and emergency procedures

v Application of SOPs

SUMMARY OF THREATS

External- Internal-Latent

Anticipated – Unexpected

Environmental – Organisational

ERRORS

Defined as flight crew actions or inactions that lead to a deviation from crew or organisational intentions; reduces safety margins; and increases the probability of adverse operational events on the ground and during flight.

Handling Errors-

Errors in the actual manipulation of controls, including:

Rounding out too high or too late

Failure to maintain tracking

Inappropriate use of power on approach

Procedural Errors-

As a consequence of an external or internal threat such as time constraints, poor communication, distraction or poor quality aerodrome markings or signage and may include:

Failure to use a written checklist

Failure to stop at a holding point

Failure to conform to tracking and height limitations

Communication Errors-

The result of ambiguous or misinterpreted communication and often results from:

Use of non standard phraseology

Poor radio reception

Unfamiliar foreign accents

Committed error-

If we expect a particular situation to arise and prepare ourselves to make an appropriate response, it is no surprise that when a situation does arise, we will respond more rapidly. We get committed to an incorrect response.

Handling errors-

Associated with one individual performing a task classified to the frequency and nature. The error-cause-removal approach to safety encourages pilots to identify and report potential sources of error and to act to prevent such errors occurring in the future. Three of the most common are:

v Systematic Error- Occurs with a definite pattern. One fault in the process. Easy to remedy.

v Random Error – Occurs without a specific pattern. Usually an indication that either the system is too complex causing an overload of mental capacity, or the person performing the task has not grasped the fundamentals and needs retraining.

v Sporadic Error- Most difficult to remedy. All the elements of a task are performed correctly most of the time. Occasionally a serious error is made on a previously correctly made task.

Vigilance Decrement-

The human capacity to maintain vigilance when monitoring a system tends to decrease markedly after about 30min.

SUMMARY OF ERRORS

Handling Errors – Procedural Errors – Communications Errors

Countermeasures-

Are used to prevent threats and or errors from impacting the safety of the flight. They may be built into aircraft systems, in which case they are known as systemic countermeasures. Other countermeasures include:

Planning countermeasures- Contingency planning, pre-flight briefing.

Execution Countermeasures – cross checking instruments, monitoring systems.

Review countermeasures – modifying plans if necessary as the flight proceeds.

When threats are not recognised and dealt with they lead to errors. Countermeasures are designed to catch errors before they can have an effect on the flight. If countermeasures are not affective, an Undesired Aircraft State may result.

Undesired Aircraft States (UAS)

Any flight condition, aircraft attitude or aircraft configuration which was not intended by the pilot or appropriate to the particular phase of flight. A threat is mismanaged which leads to an error which is unrecognised or unresolved which in turn leads to an UAS.

UAS can be categorized as:

Aircraft handling states – aircraft control, altitude, speed or track.

Ground navigation states – taxiing too fast.

Aircraft configuration states – incorrect autopilot, incorrect fuel distribution.

An error s something the pilot, or other members of the flight crew, either did or didn’t do, while an undesired aircraft state is the inappropriate condition, position or configuration that resulted from the pilot’s action or inaction.

Even when the aircraft is in an undesired state, it is not too late for the pilot to remedy the situation by dealing with the UAS before it develops into an accident or an incident. If a UAS develops, it is vital that priority is given dealing with the UAS.

Setting priorities-

Aviator, Navigate, Communicate.

Basic health

Know the effect and importance on pilot performance of

The following factors:

(a) diet, exercise

(b) coronary risk factors - smoking, cholesterol, obesity,

hereditary factors

(c) Upper respiratory tract infection eg. colds, hay fever,

congestion of air passages and sinuses

(d) food poisoning and other digestive problems

(e) headaches and migraines

(f) pregnancy:

• when to stop flying

• impact on cockpit ergonomics

(g) injuries

(h) ageing

(I) alcohol and smoking

(j) blood donations

(k) dehydration

(l) emotional

• anxiety, depression, fear.

Know that a pilot is not to fly when on any medication

unless a medical clearance from a DME has been

obtained.

Know the responsibilities of pilots with regard to being

medically fit for flight.

Reserved

Health and fitness

Know the:

(a) reasons for and frequency of physical examinations

and that a CASA network of Designated Aviation

Medical Examiners (DAMEs) exists

(b) process of obtaining a medical examination

(c) role of the CASA with regard to medical fitness and

that only those conditions which present a flight safety

hazard are disqualifying.

3.2 Alcohol:

(a) Explain how alcohol is absorbed and excreted

(b) state and explain what a ‘hangover’ is

(c) explain the effect a ‘hangover’ may have on flying

performance

(d) explain the relationship between a ‘hangover’ and

level of blood alcohol in a person

(e) explain the relationship between the level of blood

alcohol and the recovery period from a ‘hangover’

(f) state the factors that affect the elimination of alcohol

from the body and describe the effects of illicit drugs

and alcohol on proficiency eg:

• judgement, comprehension, attention to detail

• the senses, co-ordination and reaction times.

3.3. Drugs:

Explain that:

Drug abuse is a behavioural problem and is independent

of

• dependence (addiction)

• frequent use.

Define illicit or non-illicit psychoactive substances.

Explain the adverse effects of illicit or non-illicit

psychoactive substances.

Explain the effects and duration of such effects on

human performance related to perception, speed of

processing information, and reaction time of such drugs

as:

• cannabis-based substances eg, marijuana, ganja

• amphetamine-based substances eg, Ecstasy

• opium-based substances eg, codeine, heroin.

Have a broad knowledge of the undesirable effects of

over-the-counter and prescription drugs. In particular,

the side effects of:

• aspirin, antihistamines, nasal decongestants

• amphetamines, tranquillisers, sedatives, antibiotics.

Blood donations:

(a) state the effect on flying after giving a blood

donation

(b) state the recommended period between giving blood

and the next flight and know that this period can vary

between individuals.

Hyperventilation

Know how to recognise and combat hyperventilation.

Know what hyperventilation is and its causes.

Atmospheric pressure changes

Trapped gases:

(a) know the effect of changes in pressure on gases

trapped in the body cavities

(b) describe the effect on normal bodily function

(c) state/list measures for prevention/treatment.

5.2 Know the effects of flying after a period of underwater

diving and state the precautions to be taken if intending

to fly after underwater diving.

6 Basic knowledge of the anatomy of the ear

(a) Know its function in receiving sound transmissions B

(b) explain the purpose of the Eustachian tube and

effects of atmospheric/cabin pressure changes

C B A

(c) state the effects of noise exposure on: C B

• hearing loss: long/short term

• speech intelligibility

• fatigue

(d) describe recommended methods of hearing

protection.

C B

7 Vision, spatial disorientation, illusions

7.1 Have a basic knowledge of the anatomy of the eye and

its function during the day and at night.

C B

7.2 Know the factors that affect night vision and identify

methods of "dark adaptation".

C B A

7.3 Describe the limitations of the eye in discerning objects

at night and the "off-centre" method of identifying objects

at night.

C B A

7.4 Know the limitations of the eye with respect to:

(a) the ability to discern objects during flight eg.

C B A

• other aircraft, transmission lines etc

(b) empty field myopia

(c) glare

(d) colour vision in aviation

(e) common visual problems, viz:

• myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, presbyopia

(f) rotor flicker and its effects (helicopters only).

7.5 Be aware of the importance of: C C

(a) seeking experienced professional advice for

spectacles prescriptions

(b) selecting suitable sunglasses.

7.6 Know of the factors which are conducive to mid-air

collisions and describe/practice techniques for visual

"scanning".

C B A

7.7 Understand and define the term "disorientation". C B A

7.8 Know the sensory systems involved in maintaining body

equilibrium ie. that:

• equilibrium is normally maintained by use of the

eyes, inner ear and proprioceptive system ("seat of

pants").

C B A

7.9 Understand that these mechanisms were developed for

use by land based mammals and do not provide reliable

information under all conditions of flight.

C B A

7.10 Describe illusion(s) that may be associated with the

factors listed below:

C B A

(a) "leans"

(b) linear and angular accelerations

(c) unperceived changes in the pitch roll yaw

(d) autokinetic illusions

(e) "graveyard spin" illusion.

(f) somatogravic illusion.

7.11 Know:

(a) that sensory illusions usually occur when external

visual clues are poor or ambiguous and that they are

predictable

C B

(b) the importance of an artificial visual reference

system and a pilot's ability to use the system

C B A

(c) the factors that may make a person more

susceptible to disorientation

C B

(d) how to overcome sensory illusions. C B A

7.12 Know what illusions may result from the following flight

factors:

C B A

(a) false horizontal clues eg:

• sloping cloud formations and sloping terrain

(b) depth perception eg:

• flying over water, snow, desert and other

featureless terrain

• effect of fog haze dust

(c) optical characteristics of windscreens

(d) landing illusions:

• approach angles: steep shallow

• width and slope of runway

• slope of (approach)

• terrain approaches over water

(e) relative motion between objects.

8 Motion sickness C B

8.1 State the basic cause of motion sickness

8.2 List factors which may aggravate motion sickness.

8.3 List methods of combating motion sickness in flight.

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9 Acceleration "g" effects C B

Know the effects of positive & negative accelerations on

the human body include:

(a) on the cardiovascular systems

(b) vision and

(c) consciousness.

10 Toxic hazards C B A

10.1 Know the sources, symptoms, effects and treatment of

carbon monoxide poisoning.

10.2 Know the effect of breathing air contaminated by fuel

and other noxious or toxic aviation products.

11 The atmosphere and associated problems C B A

1 State the chemical composition of the atmosphere and

recall the variation of temperature and pressure with

altitude.

2 Have a basic concept of the circulatory and respiratory

systems in terms of the distribution of oxygen and the

excretion of carbon dioxide.

3 Describe what is meant by the partial pressure of

oxygen.

12 Hypoxia C B A

12.1 (a) List the causes of hypoxia and recognise the

symptoms of hypoxia particularly:

• its effect on night vision

• the dangers of behavioural changes eg. lack of self

criticism, over-confidence & a false sense of security

(b) know that symptoms are difficult to detect in healthy

individuals and can develop much faster at higher

altitudes – eg. 14,000 ft.

(c) list factors which may increase a person's

susceptibility to hypoxia

(d) state the approximate time of useful consciousness

(Effective Performance Time: EPT) at 20,000, 25,000

and 30,000 feet and list factors which affect EPT

(e) list methods of combating various forms of hypoxia.

13 Human factors considerations:

13.1 Know the basic concepts of information processing and

decision making including:

C B

(a) how sensory information is used to form mental

images

(b) the influence of the following factors on the decision

making process:

• personality traits eg. introvert/extrovert

• pride, peer pressure, employer pressure

• the desire to get the task done

• anxiety, over-confidence, boredom, complacency

• types of memory - long/short term

• memory limitations

• aides memoire, rules of thumb

• work load/overload

• skill, experience, currency.

13.2 Discuss the general concepts behind decision-making

and the methods of enhancing decision-making skills.

C B

13.3 Concepts of Stress: C B

(a) know the interaction between stress and arousal and

the effects of short and long term stress on pilot

performance and health

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(b) know the symptoms, causes and effects of

environmental stress

• working in an excessively hot, cold, vibrating or

noisy environment

(c) know the symptoms and effects of domestic and

work related stress

(d) know the effects of stress on performance

(e) know the principles of stress management eg.

• cognitive/behavioural techniques

• relaxation

• time management

13.4 Concepts of Fatigue C B

(a) identify causes of fatigue and describe its effects on

pilot performance

(b) differentiate between acute and chronic fatigue

(c) discuss coping strategies eg

• sleep management

• relaxation

• fitness and diet

13.5 Basic Ergonomics C

(a) discuss principles of control design and the design

features of conventional and modern displays

(b) discuss problems associated with:

• poorly designed controls/positioning of controls

• interpreting instrument presentations

(c) know the following information regarding safety

harnesses:

• types, how to assess their maintenance

• inertia reels, how to assess their maintenance

13.6 Basic Principles of Crew Co-ordination C

(a) discuss factors which:

• influence verbal and non-verbal communication

between flight deck crew viz:

o barriers to communication

o listening skills

o assertion skills

• affect the decision making process viz:

o communication - attitude

o personality

o judgement

o leadership style

(b) discuss ideal leadership qualities

(c) review aircraft accidents which resulted from poor

crew co-ordination.

14 Principles of first aid and survival C B

The student should be aware of the first aid and survival

information contained in ERS(A) and preferably be

exposed to practical instruction in the terms of first aid

given in this document.

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15 Threat and Error Management

Basic principles of TEM

(a) Explain the principles of TEM and detail a

process to identify and manage threats and

errors during single pilot operations.

(b) Define ‘threat’ and give examples of threats.

(c) Give an example of a committed error and

how action could be taken to ensure safe

flight.

(d) Explain how the use of checklists and

standard operating procedures can prevent

errors.

(e) Give examples of how an undesired aircraft

state can develop from an unmanaged

threat or error.

(f) Explain what resources a pilot could identify

and use to avoid or manage an undesired

aircraft , state such as being lost or entering

adverse weather.

(g) Explain the importance of ensuring that

tasks are prioritised to manage an undesired

aircraft state.

(h) Give examples of how establishing and

maintaining interpersonal relationships can

promote safe flight

Adventures in Aviation

Tuesday, February 28, 2012

Flight Radio Operators Licence (FROL)

Sunday, February 26, 2012

CPL Human Performance & Limitations Study Notes